World War One

I. CAUSES OF THE GREAT WAR

A. Economic

• Imperialism at home and abroad - In one generation (see lecture on the new imperialism)
• Africa - direct possession (1902: only Liberia, founded by former American slaves remains independent)
• Asia and Near East: economic and diplomatic pressure
• Economic concessions and extra-territorial privileges: Ottoman Empire - most vulnerable;
• China - most vulnerable; Japan - modernizing rapidly;
• India - firmly in British hands;
• Importance to Europe: keeps fat on European economy;
• colonial rule a reproach to democracy; encouraged feelings of national and racial superiority;
• "Pan" movements - a form of imperialism
• Technology and science: materialism

B. Social

• Human welfare: serfdom gone (except in Russia);
• surgery and anesthetics perfected;
• life span longer;
• Victorian middle class morality in decline;
• spread of literacy.
• Peace movements: "pipe dream of peace".
• Aristocratic remainders.
• Neglect of the proletariat.

C. Intellectual

1. European cultural heritage

2. Ideologies of progress:

conservatism - delaying action not progress (aristocracy)

liberalism - freedom, law, representative government (upper middle class)

radicalism - remove class distinctions, anti-clerical (lower middle class)

socialism - collectivist doctrine (city workers)

new left - syndicalism

D. Political

1. the nation-state: language and race

2. parliamentary government

3. parties:

• tied to class and ideology
• lack of responsibility
• too many of them

4. Differing forms

• separation of powers only in the USA
• king or president a figurehead in Britain and France
• search for majorities in parliament
• Britain: the cabinet held the whip
• France and Italy: parliament held the whip

5. Extension of the suffrage

6. Exceptions to democratization

• Germany: only has external form of it, the Reichstag is a "debating chamber"
• Austria-Hungary: maintaining monarchy in polyglot confusion
• Russia: a struggle between Duma and Ministry

E. Military

1. popular militarism

• Boer War
• naval building race: Admiral Tirpitz - risk theory
• Three-year army law: France 1913
• Tripoli campaign in Italy, 1911

2. Comparative figures on army increase, 1870-1914:

3. military expenditure

• Germany and Russia had the largest budgets in 1914
• Britain and Germany spent most per capita:
• Germany : $8.52
• Britain : $8.53
• U.S.A. : $0.32

F. Diplomatic

1. Alliance System

• 1870 - 1890: Bismarck in control
• 1890 - 1907: balance against Germany

2. Testing the system

• Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5
• First Morocco Crisis, 1905-6
• Bosnian Annexation Crisis, 1908
• Second Morocco Crisis, 1911
• Haldane Mission, 1912

3. Tensions in the Balkans

• Hapsburg Empire in turmoil
• South Slav Problem
• First Balkan War, 1912-13
• Second Balkan War, 1913

II. THE CONDUCT OF THE GREAT WAR

A. THE WAR: 1914-1916

1. The Western Front

The Schlieffen Plan (enveloping movement) - failed. It was modified by Moltke which weakened the important right wing; furthermore, the French General Staff under Joffré recovered. This led to the First Battle of the Marne (Sept. 5-12) which totally wrecked the plan. The only thing left to do was to retreat to Aisne. A race to the sea then took place. Of course, Plan17 of the French also failed, as it was bound to.

2. The Eastern Front

Two Russian armies invade, one attacks East Prussia striking north from Poland and another strikes south against Austria-Hungary from Poland. But Hindenburg and Ludendorff defeat the Russians in East Prussia at the Battle of Tannenberg (August 25-30) and the Battle of the Masurian Lakes (September 4-10). This ended the threat of invasion by Russia. But the Russians win victories against the Austrians and take Galicia with fearful losses. Meanwhile the Germans counter-attack in Poland. By the end of 1914 the Russian campaign is at a standstill. In 1915 the German offensive takes Warsaw and Vilna, delivering 1,000,000 casualties to the Russian. Another Russian offensive in 1916 (Brusilov) is no longer a serious menace to Central Powers.

3. The Balkans

• Three invasions of Serbia by Austria-Hungary unsuccessful: 1914
• Turkey moves over to Central Powers
• In 1915 after Bulgarians join Central Powers Serbia felled by General von Mackensen
• Dardennelles campaign of the British fails (1915-1916) - so Black Sea is still cut off

4. Italy

• 1915 (early) joins Allies - promised Trentino and Trieste
• Little military importance - few resources, bad army
• Trench warfare on Italian-Austro-Hungarian frontier

5. The War at Sea

• British navy blockade cut communication and shipping
• British seize German colonies in Africa
• British establish communication through Mediterranean with Balkans
• This situation drove Germany in desperation to submarine which brought in the U.S.A.
• Protection of supplies and soldiers from Canada and the U.S. to Europe

6. German Submarines

• Fleet bottled up - so use submarine
• "war zone" around the British Isles (1915) - will sink all merchant vessels
• Lusitania is sunk in May 1915: loss 1,200 lives (100 Americans)
• Sussex is sunk in April 1916: U.S. ultimatum - resulted in cessation for a year - U.S. opinion drifted against the Central Powers

B. THE WAR: 1916

1. Verdun and the Somme

• Germans attempt to bleed France to death by capturing Verdun (February - July)
• Germans are beaten back by Pétain
• British attack on the Somme (July - November)
• Losses for two battles: Allies - 950,000 + Germans - 785,000 = 1,735,000
• The result was a war of attrition 2. Russia and Rumania
• Russian offensive to relieve Verdun
• Victory over Austrians at Lutsk - take Bukovina
• German reinforcements stop them from further advances
• Rumania joins the Allies but Mackensen with help from Turks and Bulgars takes Rumania
• Thus Germans get wheat and oil C. THE WAR: 1917 - The Critical Year 1. Western Front
• Nivelle offensive to break through trenches: great loss of life; open mutiny in places
• Defeatism in England, France and Germany - no decision; economic hardship

2. Entrance of the U.S.A. in April 1917

• German resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare February 1
• German propaganda and sabotage swings public opinion
• U.S. economy involved in Allied cause
• Security of U.S. and civilization threatened - "make the world safe for democracy"
• Germany: new submarine pressure - April to June 1917
• Germany: great spring offensive in 1918
• Yet, U.S. entrance the great turning point of the war

3. Withdrawal of Russia

• Terrible military defeats since 1914
• Corruption and incompetence of Tsar's bureaucracy
• March Revolution - Kerensky tries to carry on the war
• Army is disintegrating
• November Revolution - Bolsheviks seize power under Lenin
• "No annexations and no indemnities" - policy of new government
• Crushing Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918)

4. The Russian Revolutions

In the March Revolution

• Nicholas ignored demands of parties and nationalities during early defeats
• decreed Duma dissolved and forbade strikes
• Petrograd Soviet is established
• Nicholas abdicated in favor of Grand Duke Michael (brother)
• a bourgeois liberal provisional government under Prince Lvov plans reform and a constituent assembly to draw up constitution

In the November Revolution

• Attempt to establish democratic middle class regime hampered by numerous national groups; lack of popular enthusiasm; a proletariat which wanted social and economic reforms Soviets are formed
• Discipline in army becomes lax
• Bolsheviks demand peace and force resignation of Prime Minister Milyukov
• Socialists and Kerensky try to guide provisional government
• Opposition of Constitutional Democrats, Bolsheviks and reactionaries is too great
• Bolsheviks increase in power (Lenin's return in April turns the scale)
• General Kornilov attempts a military coup
• First attempt of Bolsheviks to seize power fails
• "Red Guard" overthrows the Provisional Government and Bolsheviks gain control of National Congress of Soviets
• Political revolution of March is superceded by economic and social revolution of November

D. THE WAR AND THE ARMISTICE: 1918

1. The Final German Effort

• March - July - create pockets in allied lines
• 800,000 casualties for French and British
• Ludendorff destroys the German army and the Allies hold on
• Americans tilt the balance - bring in 100,000 troops - second Battle of the Marne - Chateau Thierry
• Unity of command under Foch

2. Failure of the Submarine

• In 1917: Germans destroyed shipping faster than it could be rebuilt
• Purpose: starve England before U.S. help counted
• Convoy system saved the day 3. Allied success in the Near East
• Allenby takes Jerusalem in December 1917
• Turks forced out of Asia Minor in 1918
• Allied forces move up from Salonika against Bulgaria in September 1918 - surrender follows
• Whole German southeast began to crumble

4. Breakdown in Germany

• Shortage of food and fuel
• Failure of Ludendorff's offensive
• Austria-Hungary on the brink of revolution
• Foch drives German army back in the West
• German soldiers on the Eastern Front infected with Bolshevism
• Fourteen Points of President Wilson convince Germans that the war is lost and that peace had to be made

5. Armistice

• September 29, 1918: army informs the government that the war is lost and demands an armistice
• Allied conditions made resumption of the war impossible : surrender of military supplies; evacuation west - Rhine territory;
• food blockade to continue
• Armistice accepted on November 11 (11:00 am) at Compigne

E. PEACEMAKING: 1919

1. Wilson is the dominant figure

• Paris chosen at French insistence: triumph and revenge
• Allies grudgingly accept his Fourteen Points as basis for negotiation
• Once war is won Allies return to nationalistic policies
• War only lately defined as a war for democracy
• Thus a contest between old and new (Wilson's) nationalism
• League was Wilson's favorite theme - willing to make sacrifices for it
• What Wilson wanted most Republicans wanted least
• Wilson's absence for one month - made treaty a hasty piece of work

2. Organization

a. Plenary session - January 18, 1919 - after that rare

b. Work done in committees

• Usual diplomatic horse-trading;
• Slanted pleas;
• France and Britain bring diplomats;
• Wilson brings professors and Colonel House

c. Council of Ten :

Big Four (George, Clemenceau, Wilson, Orlando) and Big Three : -

Lloyd George

• prisoner of his supporters : Tory nationalists; dominion prime ministers
• "Khaki Election" of December 1918 -

Clemenceau

• refuses to budge from bedrock demands
• on homeground - gives him an advantage
• patriot and realist (50 years of political experience)
• demand: security from German invasion
• Foch and "natural" frontier -

Wilson

• the idealistic leader
• he is operating without a mandate

III. THE CHARACTER OF THE GREAT WAR

A. The character of the the conflict

• comparison with World War II: the prelude to total war
• "stacked the cards for the future"

B. The early illusions

• brevity expected
• cash and casualties
• quick victory
• Russian manpower vs. German technical excellence?
• dominance of th sea vs. central communicatins system?
• superficially Entente looked strongest
• at first fate rested with France
• Austria and Russia slow and disorganized
• Germany: aristocratic weakness
• French democracy an asset in the end

C. The failure of strategy and of military technique

• unprecedented in its brungling and wasteful character
• deadlock reached by end of 1914 - no more than 10-mile shift in front line in 3 years
• great surprise: trench warfare (a collosal siege)
• the French concept of "attack!" and the German Schlieffen Plan

D. Psychological shocks and attrition of morale

• revulsion follows early enthusiasm
• first 16 month: 600,000 French dead
• first year one half of French families received the "telegram"
• Germany never returned to normal
• Russian generals squandered lives recklessly

E. The Balance Sheet

1. Ten to thirteen million dead:

2. Twenty million are wounded

3. France is devastated

4. Vienna and Berlin near starvation

5. Influenza, typhus, cholera took millions

6. Social revolution in Central and Eastern Europe